2.4 Results of World War I

Results of World War I
In the five years from when the war first started in 1914 to the finalization of the peace treaties in 1919, many things had changed in Europe. War had carved Europe up, causing changes in politics, societies and in the economies of many countries.

Political:
The geography of Europe was redrawn in 1919. Because of the collapse of several European states, many new successive states had emerged. Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Yugoslavia are some of the 9 states that had become independent. The emergence of these new states disrupted the balance of power held in Europe and instead created a power vacuum in which many ethnic groups sought their own independence.

The collapse of certain states within Europe also saw the fall of imperial monarchs. Russia and Germany were both major powers going into the war. By the end of the war, both of these countries had lost not only the war, but also their original governments. The tradition of having an imperial monarch as the ruler of the country became replaced with the rise of the republican. The Tzar of Russia and the Kaiser of Germany were replaced with movements fueled by the people. Eventually, the people took over with communism in Russia and fascism in Germany.
In contrast, the victors did not experience as much change in government. Understandably, Britain and France kept their style of governments and policies remained unchanged.

As outlined within Woodrow Wilson's 14 points, the League of Nations was created as an international system of diplomacy that would solve large conflicts. Britain and France, as major powers of the world, quickly became the cornerstone for the organization. USA, although their President was the one who proposed the league, chose not to join due to the isolationism that citizens wanted.


Economic:
The obvious effect of any war would be the costs put into the effort. In a war this large, every participant needed to massive amounts of money. Countries who participated in the war even required loans to help pay for the war. After the war they were all required to repay the loans and this created a tough economic situation where inflation occurred and jobs were lost. Many of these countries took their loans from the US, who entered the war a few years later. While countries needed a strong economy in order to thrive, the US became an economic superpower as others had to repay the US. Furthermore, money was also needed to repair the physical damages left by the war. The loans, additional payments for repairs and the loss of trade and investments over the span of the war left Europe facing a potential economic crisis.

Social:
The unethical issue of any war would be the cost of human lives. 8 millions soldiers were lost in the war, leaving behind their children, spouses and friends. 5 million civilians died as a result of disease with an additional 15 million deaths caused by the flu epidemic of 1918-1919.
Workers that remained could be granted greater influence within society and politics given the heavy reliance upon the industry during the war. Workers were able to gain better pay, work conditions and those who had become unemployed after the war were given social insurance benefits for them and their families.
Women also gained an improved social status as the demands of the war had given women employment opportunities while the men fought in the war. Traditionally male dominated jobs had to be given to women. This increased confidence felt by the women and led to demands for more opportunities in the future. The impact of women on society grew further as they were given a say in politics, through voting, as well as new professions such as lawyers.

2.3 WW1 Peace Settlements

Treaty of Brest Litvosk (1918)
The Treaty of Brest-Litvosk was the peace treaty between Russia and the Triple Alliance signed on March 3, 1918. It confirmed Russia's surrender from World War 1 following the Bolshevik revolution.

By October 26, 1917, the Bolsheviks had signed a Decree on Peace with hopes of coming to a peace agreement with Germany. The Russians had gone through tremendous financial issues that was bound to follow a war. One of the reasons the Bolsheviks were able to come to power was due to their eagerness to end the war while the provisional government, between Febuary and November of 1917, had kept Russia in the war. The people no longer wanted this burden and Lenin promised 'peace at any price' in order to keep the Bolsheviks in power.

Lenin's 'peace at any price' really became reality when the Treaty of Brest Litvosk was signed. Russia lost one sixth of its population by giving up huge pieces of land to the Germans. 27% of quality farmland and 74% of iron and coal  reserves were given up. Much of the Russian held territories in Europe were given up to Germany.

This treaty allowed Lenin to focus on consolidation of power within Russia instead of the war front. Lenin was able to maintain power over the Bolshevik party and brought revitalized support from pockets of Russians. The loss of resources, territory and population did hurt the Bolshevik regime at first, but by the end of the war in 1918 the treaty was annulled with the loss of Germany. Temporarily, Lenin did see a drop in followers as Russians who were 'lost' turned to anti-Bolshevism and even pushed to continue the war instead. Increases in opposition ultimately led to the Russian Civil War. Germany saw the treaty as one of the 'greatest successes of world history.' For the few remaining months of the war, this gave Germany a large boost in morale as the amount of land and resources increased to help the raging war. The two front war that Germany had feared was no longer a issue and focus could be put on the western front.


Treaty of Versailles:
The Treaty of Versailles was a treaty made solely for Germany following the end of World War 1. After months of deliberation, the terms were finally accepted and signed on June 28th, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. The allied countries each had their own aims within the treaty with respect to the losses experienced in the war. Each country laid blame on Germany.

Britain sacrifice many resources and lives for the sake of the war. The deaths of about 1 million British led the people to demand the death of the Kaiser. The British government saw it differently. Although  they equally laid blame on Germany, Prime Minister Lloyd George wanted to maintain the Germany economy instead of decimating the Germany economy.   The British, perhaps because of their isolation from Germany, wanted sensible amounts of monetary reparations and military reductions. Germany was to remain a great economic power, to encourage European trades, and also have an army capable of defending itself. The German colonies and territories, in contrast, were to be divided among the victors. Finally, Britain supported the League of Nations, which would act as a peace keeping organization. Germany would join the league after she has displayed a peaceful nature.

In general, the French had aims of a similar structure to that of Britain, but at a more extreme level. France was not as lucky as Britain. They were not an island off the Western coast of Europe. At times during the war, the French home front was also the war front. Most of the fighting fought in World War 1 was on French soil, so understandably the French would loathe diplomacy towards Germany. Territories and colonies would also be taken and divided among the winners. The Saar, with its coal and iron mines, would be given to France to help industrialize. Alsace and Lorraine would return to France after being stolen in the France-Prussian war.  Reparation payments would be so great, the army entirely dismantled so that Germany could never rise again to threaten France. The League of Nations was seen as pointless and Germany should not be allowed to join .

The United States, being on a separate continent from much of the events of World War 1, took on the stance of isolationism. The people made demands to separate themselves from the European problems, but President Woodrow Wilson had different aspirations. He thought that the previously German territories should be given the right to determine its own future through plebiscites. Colonies would be controlled under by the League through mandates supervised by the allies. Reparation payments would be kept low to prevent aggravating Germany into a state of vengeance (perhaps this was to keep France and Britain in debt to USA). The USA also wanted the German army to dismantle, but also every other country as this would ensure world peace. The League of Nations, originating from Woodrow Wilson, must be set up under the treaty and Germany was allowed to join if they proved they were peaceful.


Key Terms of the Treaty of Versailles:

• German colonies were split among the allies. Alsace-Lorrain returned to France. Saar Plebiscite controlled by League for 15 years but coal mines were run by France. West Prussia to Poland to split Germany. 
• Reparations not decided at Versailles but German signed a 'blank check.' Later decided to be 6,600 million pounds in 1921
• Germany army was sizable at about 100,000 men. Tanks, submarines and conscription banned. Navy only had 6 warships. Airforce dismantled 
• Rhineland demilitarised and German military permanently prohibited from entering
• League of Nations set up to maintain peace and solve international conflicts. 
• Germany was to blame for war

2.2 Total War

Total War:
     Total War is seen when the entire country and its resources is dedicated to the war efforts. The social, economic, military and political aspects of the country are all involved in the war in one way or another.
Socially, a total war would include the civilians in a home front. They would have to work in factories to build weapons for the soldiers. Women would be recruited to work in male-dominated work places as most males would have gone to war. The government might use propaganda to recruit the people. Family members might be required to go to war as conscription increases.
Economically, all resources would go towards the war. Money would be spent on armaments or for food for the soldiers. Therefore, rationing of civilian goods will probably occur in order to provide those supplies for the soldiers. Industry would then shift from consumer goods to war goods. Generally, there might be inflation of prices and basic consumer goods such as food will be more expensive than usual.
Militarily, there would be large effects on the whole country. People will face destruction and many casualties within the city as well as in the war front.
Politically, the social, economic and military aspects will be controlled by the government. The government will control whether you have to go to war or not. They will decide how much food you get as they ration everything. Everything will be controlled by the government for the war effort.

World War 1:
The aims of both sides of the war showed that World War 1 was a total war. The Triple Entente and the Triple Alliance wanted total victory. Their governments used every possible resource in order to win, even using their universities to develop new weapons and technologies. Not only were university researchers part of the war effort, all civilians were also used. Enemies saw that both universities and civilians were integral parts of the war effort that provided resources for the soldiers. The nation formed a machine that required all parts in order to function. Both sides knew that attacking the civilians and cities of their enemies could also be useful.
The civilians were called to maintain the industry to keep up with the demands that war brought to society. In some countries, women were called to work in the empty positions left by men. These civilians were threatened by the enemies because they saw the significance of their production.  Civilian workers and factories were bombed with long distance guns as well as plane raids.
Total war can also be seen with the increase of government control over the nation. Power became centralized as the government began controlling most if not all aspects of every day life. The government and its effects can be seen in the economy and society. In World War 1, governments were allowed to interfere with people's lives in order to meet the demands of war. Censorship and propaganda were used to encourage civilians to join the war and to maintain morales within the workers. With the rise of conscription and casualties of both civilians and soldiers, it was important to maintain a positive homefront.

Governments used everything in order to win

Causes of World War 1

Militarism 

• Conscription was adopted by all the major European powers except Britain. In the span of 1900-1914, all the powers had increased their arms, strategic railways and military forces. Countries even developed large reserved armies that was made up of a large number of trained men prepared to fight. 
• Britain and Germany naval arms race. Long term shipbuilding programme in Britain and German Naval Law doubled German battle fleet. Germany built nine Dreadnoughts while Britain built 18 in the years 1909-1911. Germany opened up the Kiel Canal between the Baltic and the North Sea to allow the strategic movement and placement of the Dreadnoughts. Britain also built new naval bases for the increased number of dreadnoughts In Scotland. When one country increased its arms, others felt obligated to do so as well as to maintain a balance of power
• The idea that the country with the most arms would have the most power in international relations. With an increase of colonialist pursuits and the nationalistic aims to expand, diplomacy was ignored while militaristic views became the norm. 
• By 1914, most countries had the military strength necessary to fight in a war. Germany felt that a war was necessary if it were to become a world power.

Alliances:
     The alliances of World War 1 included:
            Triple alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy
                They had the mutual agreement to give military aid in the event of war
            Triple Entente: Britain, France and Russia
                 Although they didn't have any official military agreements, they were all allied by word.                        They recognized Germany as the enemy that needed to be stopped. France originally made an agreement with Russia in 1894 and an agreement with Britain in 1904 called the Entente Cordiale (Friendly Relationship) as a promise to work together. 1907 the triple Entente was formed when Britain allied with Russia. Britain also made a naval treaty with Japan in order to secure the Pacific region. The finalization of the Triple Entente between the three countries surprised Germany who felt surrounded by the countries.

     Were these alliances a cause of war?
Within the Balkan Affair, Austria was given a 'blank check' from Germany that essentially reinforced their aims. With the help of Germany, Austria grew confident enough to invade Serbia. Now because of Germany's military pact with Austria, Germany was forced to mobilize against Serbia as well. This triggered Serbia's pact with Britain and France and forced the Triple Entente into the war as well. This increased tensions dramatically and war seemed inevitable. Alliances didn't deter war, instead it forced countries to join the war. When one country went to war, those that were allied felt obligated to help.
    In contrast, these alliances were usually loose verbal agreements. Germany didn't have to support Austria Hungary when Serbia was attacked, and why would Britain help Serbia when its isolation was maintained. The Triple entente had no military obligations to each other. They were not required to attack especially as both alliances were created to defend and not to take on an aggressive stance.

Nationalism: 

     Every country seemed to have nationalist aims to expand, to colonize or to elevate their country to a supreme status. Minority races in countries such as Turkey and Austria Hungary sought to develop their own countries. 'Panslavism' in the Balkans was the nationalistic attitude of the Slav races. Serbia stood out as one of them. They become an independent country, but there remained a high Serbian population in Turkey and Austria Hungary, so naturally, Serbia began to rally their people. Rebellions and terrorism polluted the Balkans and tensions increased.

     The Balkan Crisis (1912-1913)
The Balkan League was made up of Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece and Montenegro. They sought to free themselves from any Turkish influence and to gain independence. War broke out between the two sides with the Balkan League emerging as victors. Turkey was driven out and divided by the Balkan League. The division of the resources brought conflict into the League as Austria attempted to establish an Albanian state and to exclude Serbia from the Adriatic coastline. Bulgaria tried to rid Macedonia of Serbian and Greek Forces and this led to the Second Balkan war
The Balkan war increased political tensions throughout Germany and France. France wanted to develop relations with Russia instead of restraining her. France agreed to support Russia if Germany attacked or if conflicts with Austria Hungary escalated. Germany showed political unease and made military preparations for the future.

     German Nationalism:
The slogan 'A Place in the Sun' became the prominent goal of the Germans. They had a desire to colonize in Morocco which led to the two Moroccan crises of 1905 and 1911
The Kaiser of Germany had made public declarations in 1905 that recognized the Sultan of Morocco as independent. He also tested the British and French agreement over the colonial status of the Moroccan territories. He hoped to weaken Anglo-French relations and inadvertently to elevate Germany's status in international affairs. However, Germany was humiliated when a conference was called between the three countries and Germany was reminded of France's dominance in the Moroccan area.
The second Moroccan crisis

Imperialism
The years 1895-1905 was the peak of colonial expansion. Rivalries, understandably, began to develop as European countries began fighting for certain territories. Many European powers had such colonies in Africa. Conflicts indirectly led to the formation of alliances with Italy allying with Germany and Austria after losing Tunis to France. Russia joined the British as they developed similar fears of Germany expansionist aims in the Balkans. The entente was formed in 1907 partly due to the aggressive, imperialist state of Germany in both the Moroccans crises.
The rivalry found in colonialism seemed to intensify the arms race. During the Moroccan crises, war almost resulted. Germany found that they needed to build a strong army in order to establish respect for themselves and a navy to find power in the waters.
Between 1905-1907, Britain, France and Russia had solved most of their disagreements and therefore had come to terms regarding colonial rivalries.

Events leading up to World War 1:

First Moroccan Crisis (1905):
Kaiser Wilhem proclaimed that the Sultan of Morocco was independent in speeches made in Tangier, Morocco. He also weakened the agreements made by the British and French Anglo-French regarding the status of the Moroccan territories. The British had agreed that France would conquer Morocco as stated in their Entente cordiale of 1904. An international conference was held by the major powers in Algeciras to decide the status of Morocco. France gained support from Britain and Russia and Germany, who was isolated except for the support of Austria, was forced to submit to France's. Germany was forced to stay out of Morocco. Overall, military tensions did not rise, but political tensions did. The French became furious with Germany. Britain saw the crisis as another German attempt to build Germany's empire and to threaten the British status as the world's greatest power. This led to the Triple Entente in 1907 as all three countries were alarmed at the German aggression.

Telegraph Article (1908)

The Telegraph Article outlined some of Kaiser Wilhelms aims for the future. In an interview with the Daily Telegraph newspaper, he claimed that he wanted to ally with Britain. He also thought the British were 'mad' and that the Germans hated them. Finally, he even stated that Germany would build a powerful naval fleet to protect their interests around the world. Britain's world renowned fleet felt threatened and they became convinced that Germany was challenging British power.

Bosnian Crisis (1908)
The diminishing status of Turkey had left many Europeans fearing a power vacuum. When a revolution broke out in 1908, it left Austria-Hungary the chance to annex the Bosnia, one of the Turkish states. Serbia, who had many of their Serbs in Bosnia, was outraged as they had also hoped to rule their people. Serbia immediately called for the help of Russia who also expected support from Britain and France. Britain and France, however, decided not to support Russia, which humiliated Russia and they were forced to step down. It was here that Russia vowed never to back down again, which would later cause conflict in the July Crisis of 1914.

Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) (Agadir Crisis):
The Agadir Crisis began with a revolution in Morocco in which France sent an army to resolve the situation. In doing so, they also decided to take over the country. By taking over the country, France had broken the Act of Algeciras that was made after the first Moroccan Crisis. Germany reacted by sending the gunboat Panther to Agadir. This move by the Germans angered the British and French who feared that the Germans had violent intentions. Germany was once again forced to remove the gunship and was given a piece of the Congo as a consolation prize. German resentment, understandly, increased as they were determined not to lose the next time around.

Balkan Wars (1912-1913):
Turkey's continuous fall resulted in the creation of the Balkan league which was made up of Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria. The league attacked Turkey and managed to capture most of the Turkish possessions within Europe. Britain tried to arrange a peace conference, but war quickly broke out again in 1913. Together, Britain and Germany brought the war to an end. Germany saw British cooperation as a sign of weakness and that Britain would surely cooperate again if there was another crisis. Throughout the wars, Serbia became the most powerful Balkan state. Their revitalized confident led them to believe that they had a chance to challenge Austria.

July Crisis of 1914:
On June 28th, 1914, a Serbian terrorist assassinated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian Throne. Firstly, Austria asked for a blank cheque from Germany as a promise to support them when needed. Secondly, Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia on July 23rd with impossible terms. Serbia instead accepted almost all of the ultimatum save one point, yet Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28th.
Russia: Russia, as an ally to Serbia, had to mobilize in order to maintain any influence in the Balkans and to remain an ally to the French. Although they did not want war and although they felt that a war would destroy Russia, they still decided to mobilize (especially following the let down of the Bosnian Crisis). Russia moved its forces to the southern borders of Austria as well as Germany since the two were allied. The Tsar Nicholas tried to prevent war against Germany by assuring the Kaiser that the Russians had not intended to fight Germany, but Germany still retaliated by declaring war on Russia on August 1st. Russia was not obligated to take an aggressive stance. Instead a defensive position could have been their aim, but the German's Schleiffen plan forced Germany to attack for fear of a two front war. Germany could not simply allow an army to sit at their doorsteps so they established the Schleiffen Plan. The Schleiffen plan was used if both Russia and France happened to attack Germany.
France: Considering that the Germans saw France as weak they would quickly wipe out Paris before transporting the German army to the Russian front to face the Russians. At the time France didn't seem to be mobilizing against Germany, hence the Schleiffen plan would be rendered useless. So Germany, claiming that France had been bombing Germany towns, declared war on France on August 3rd. With the mobilization of German troops towards France, they also declared war on Germany on August 4th. Britain: Originally, Britain had tried to maintain the peace between the countries but had failed. Ultimately they were called into war on August 4th following the Germany invasion of Belgium. The German Schlieffen plan called for the invasion of France which required the German army to cross through Belgium. The Kaiser asked the Belgians for permission, but they refused so the Kaiser had no choice but to invade Belgium as well. The British were obliged by a treaty to help Belgium in the event of war and so Britain was drawn to war against Germany as well.

5.1 Communities and ecosystems

Definitions

Species - a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

Habitat - the environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism.

Population - a group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time.

Community - a group of populations living and interacting with each other in an area.

Ecosystem - a community and its abiotic environment.

Ecology - the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their environment.

Autotroph and heterotroph

Autotroph - an organism that synthesizes its organic molecules from simple inorganic substances.

Heterotroph - an organism that obtains organic molecules from other organisms.

Consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs

Consumer - an organism that ingests other organic matter that is living or recently killed.

Detritivore - an organism that ingests non-living organic matter.

Saprotrophs - an organism that lives on or in non-living organic matter, secreting digestive enzymes into it and absorbing the products of digestion.

Food chain

Food chain - a feeding relationship in which a carnivore eats a herbivore which itself has eaten plant matter; indicates the direction of energy flow.

Carrot Plant -> Eastern Cottontail Rabbit -> Red Fox -> Golden Eagle

Grass -> Grasshopper -> Snake -> Hawk

Grass -> Grasshopper -> Shrew -> Owl

Food web

Food web - individual food chains may be temporary, and are interconnected so that they form it; shows all the feeding relationships in a community with arrows which show the direction of the energy flow.

 

Trophic level
Trophic level - the level at which an organism feeds in a food chain.

Deduce trophic levels of organisms in a food chain and a food web
(enchantedlearning.com)

(msu.edu)

Food web with 10 organisms
(ibguides.com)

(exclude one organism as there are 11 here).

Light as an energy source
Light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

Energy flow in a food chain
Green plants (producers) transfer light energy into chemical energy of sugars in photosynthesis; some is reflected, some transmitted and some lost as heat energy.
Heat is the waste product of reactions of respiration and of the plant's metabolism, as sugar is converted into lipids and amino acids.
Some of these metabolites are used in growth and development of the plant, and by these reactions, energy is locked up in the organic molecules of the plant body.
Energy transfer from plant to primary consumer once consumer eats plant.
When plant dies, remaining energy is passed to detritivores and saprotrophs when dead plant matter is broken down and has decayed.
Consumer eats producers or primary or secondary consumers. Energy transferred to consumer and the consumer uses this energy into muscular movements (hunting, feeding, escaping from predators); some food is undigested and some is lost in feces.
Heat energy is lost when consumer grows and develops.
When another consumer eats a consumer, the dead consumer passes remaining energy to detritivores and saprotrophs when dead matter is broken down and decayed.

Energy transformations
Energy transformations are never 100% efficient.

Shape of pyramids of energy

Only 10% of the energy is passed onto the higher tertiary levels, much energy is used for cell respiration to provide energy for growth, movement, feeding, and all other essential life processes. Not all food that is eaten can be digested (bones, hair, feathers), and not all organisms as each trophic level are eaten.
For pyramid of numbers, it is evident that grass and plants are much more numerous than the higher trophic levels.
For pyramid of biomass, finding the biomass is the dry weight, and it would seem plausible that because grass and plants take up the most numbers, then it must weigh the most.

Energy and nutrients in an ecosystem
All organisms are made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, together with mineral elements nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, sulphur and potassium.
When organisms die, their bodies are broken down and decomposed, mainly by bacteria and fungi, and the nutrients are released.
Elements may become part of the soil solution, and some may react with chemicals of soil or rock particles, before becoming part of living things again by being reabsorbed by plants.
The cycling processes by which essential elements are released and re-used are called biogeochemical cycles because the cycle of changes involve both living things and the non-living environment, consisting of atmosphere, hydrosphere (oceans, rivers and lakes) and the lithosphere (rocks and soil).
When organisms die, their bodies are broken down to simpler substances by a succession of organisms.
Scavenging actions of detritivores often begin the process, but saprotrophic bacteria and fungi always complete the breakdown processes.
There is a limited supply of many of the chemical elements required as nutrients, so recycling is essential.

Saprotrophic bacteria
Saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients.

4.4 Genetic engineering and biotechnology

Use of polymerase chain reaction to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA
1) Denaturation - DNA sample is heated to separate into two strands.
2) Annealing - DNA primers attach to opposite ends of target sequence.
3) Elongation - Heat tolerant DNA polymerase (Taq) copies the strands.

Gel electrophoresis of DNA
In gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size.
1) Sample of fragmented DNA is placed in walls of an agarose gel.
2) Gel placed in buffering solution/electrical current passed across gel.
3) DNA's charge goes to positive.
4) Fragments are then separated according to size.

Gel electrophoresis in DNA profiling
Gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling.
1) Satellite DNA (repeating sequences are short tandem repeats).
2) These repeats are excised to form fragments by cutting a variety of restriction endonulceases (those that cut DNA at specific sites).
3) Individuals have different number of repeats, and are unique.

Application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and in forensic investigations
1) DNA sample collected and amplified by PCR.
2) Satellite DNA (non-coding) is cut with specific restriction enzymes to generate fragments.
3) Individuals have unique fragment lengths due to variable length of short tandem repeats (STR).
4) Fragments separated with gel electrophoresis.
5) DNA profile can be analyzed; 2 applications - paternity testing and forensic investigations.

Analysis of DNA profiles
Paternity analysis (science.howstuffworks.com)

Three outcomes of human genome project
Mapping has allowed us to know number, location and basic sequence of human genes.
Screening has led to production of specific gene probes to detect sufferers and carriers of genetic disease conditions.
Medicine has seen discovery of new proteins and their functions, from which we can develop improved treatments (pharmacogenetics/rational drug design).
Ancestrally, we have improved insight into our origins, evolution and historical migratory patterns of humans.
We can also begin sequencing of non-human organisms.

Universal genetic code
When genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal.
Genetic code is universal, every living organism has the same codons for same amino acids; therefore, genetic info could be translated by another.

Basic technique used for gene transfer
DNA extraction
1) Plasmid removed from bacterial cell (plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules that can exist and replicate autonomously)
2) Gene of interest removed from an organism's genome using a restriction endonuclease which cut at specific sequences of DNA.
3) Gene of interest and plasmid are both amplified by PCR.

Digestion and Ligation
1) Plasmid cut with same restriction enzyme that was used to excise the gene of interest.
2) Generates overhangs (stick ends) allowing two DNA constructs to fit together.
3) Gene of interest and plasmid spliced together by DNA ligase, creating a recombinant plasmid.

Transfection and Expression
1) Recombinant plasmid inserted into desired host cell.
2) Transgenic cells hopefully produce desired trait encoded by gene of interest (expression).
3) Product may need be isolated from host and purified in large amounts.

Two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals
Salt tolerance in tomato plants.
Synthesis of beta-carotene (vitamin A precursor) in rice.
Herbicide resistance in crop plants.
Factor IX (human blood clotting) in sheep milk.

Potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification

Herbicide Tolerant Crops
Benefits	Dangers
Eradicates weeds, loss of yield due to competition with weed.	Fewer weed species on farmland, and longer periods without weeds growing, breaks wildlife food chain.
Glysophate herbicide transported all around weed plant kills all weeds even those with extensive roots.	Selection of glysophate resistant rops ties the grower to one particular herbicide product - choice is lost.
Glysophate inhibits nzyme for production of amino acids in plants; enzyme absent from animals, lowering toxicity.	Will GM plant material, when consumed by humans, release novel toxins or otherwise adversely affect enzyme systems in human digestive system?
Herbicide applied as large droplets from coarse nozzles, rather than as a fine mist of tiny droplets that are prone to drift onto surrounding habitats.	If glyphosate herbicide droplets do reach hedgerow plants, their size/chemical activity in plant means they are more likely to do damage.

Define clone
Group of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells derived from a single parent cell.

Technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells
Somatic cell nuclear transfer
1) Female animal treated with hormones (FSH) to stimultae egg development.
2) Nucleus from egg removed (enucleated), removing genetic info from cell.
3) Egg fused with nucleus from a somatic (body) cell of another sheep, making egg cell diploid.
4) Electric shock delivered to stimulate egg to divide, once process begins, egg implanted into uterus of surrogate.
5) Developing embryo has same genetic material as that sheep that contributed the diploid nucleus, thus a clone.

Ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans

Therapeutic Cloning
For	Against
Used to cure serious diseases with cell therapy.	Involves creation and destruction of human embryos.
Stem cell research paves way for future discoveres (replace bad cells with good ones) and beneficial technologies tht would not occurred if use was banned.	Embryonic stem cells are capable of continued division and may cause and develop into cancerous cells and cause tumors.
Parents at high risk of producing offspring with genetic disease could have healthy children (infertile couples too).	Human beings might be planned and produced with sole intention of supplying spare parts for a related human being (with health problems).
Cloning techniques are safe and reliable as other comparable medical procedures.	Techniques are experimental and unreliable because there are many deaths of embryos and new borns.