Russian Revolution of 1905

Immediate Causes of Revolution of 1905:

• Bloody Sunday (January 1905): Peaceful march of 150,000 workers to petition against poor work conditions and high taxes. Cossack troops attacked the protesters, killing about 1,000 people. The name of the Tsar and its regime was blemished.

Short Term Cause

• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
  
  
  • Driven by a eagerness to colonize in Manchuria and Korea. 
  • Nicholas II encouraged to launch war after Japanese aggravation in Port Arthur. Kaiser wanted Russia distracted and domestic politics also encouraged war despite the poor economy of 1904 caused by poor harvests. 
  • Poor harvests led to unrest among peasants, high food prices, economic depression and ultimately strikes and riots. 
  Russia decided to enter the way but quickly suffered great losses both on land and sea. Perhaps this was caused by the overconfidence of Russia who was facing a country that was puny compared to the 'Great Power.' Japanese had many advantages including faster access to war front, a larger number of troops and competent generals who were not competing for power as the Russian generals had done.
  
  
  Consequences:
  • Humiliation:  Russia forced to sign Treaty of Portsmouth. Embarrassment for the Tsar and Russia
  • Catalyst for revolution in 1905. Government seen as incompetent after loss. War hurt economy and created food shortages, fuel shortages and inflation increased even more because of war. 
  • Poor conditions at the home front spread ideas of revolt and uprisings

  
  

Long Term Causes:

• Witte`s policies put huge pressures on workers and peasants including low wages, high taxes and even grain taxes.The addition of the poor harvest of 1903 made matters worst as food prices rose and jobs were lost as well.
• Political issues: Tsar Nicholas` refusal to make any concessions for a representative government. The oppressive rule of the regime and Tsar.

Course of Revolution:

• Strikes all over St. Petersburg which led workers from other cities to strike
• Mutiny of navy and army 
• Peasant riots causing damage across Russia
• 2.7 million workers on strike by end of 1905. Strike of railway workers brought economy to a halt
• Racial minorities seeking independence from the Tsar`s control
• Beginning of many opposition parties including the Kadets led by the Middle class liberals and the Mensheviks led by Leon Trotsky

Conclusion:

• Army remained loyal to regime. Order restored, Trotsky arrested and riots crushed.
• Disunity of protesters: different goals among the protesters, lack of leadership by the Left, not everyone wanted a revolution but just concessions to be made
• October Manifesto: political concessions made to peasants and liberals. Promised a legislative DUMA and liberals freedom of expression which satisfied the moderate liberals, but not the revolutionary liberals. Promised to stop outrageous taxing of peasants.  
• Bloody Sunday forever hurt the relationship between the tsar and its people
• Duma: introduced parliamentary government, but with Nicholas still in power (limited monarchy)

Witte's Attempts to Modernize

1890-1905
Russian Weakness:

• Agricultural inefficiency: medieval state of agricultural technology and division of land equated to the inefficiency of production. This was caused by the lack of investment put into agriculture and the prevention of innovation. 
• Russia quickly fell behind Britain and the USA in industrial output and understandably, their economy as well. 
• Complications in communications and transport: the vastness of Russia as a country hurt their communications and transport of materials. The lack of railways and the scattered nature of its major cities became a huge issue for Russia

Solutions of Sergei Witte:

• Sergei Witte: Russian Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903. He was able to bring large changes to the economy
• Belief that rapid forced industrialization was the way to success. Industry would create an economically self dependent Russia
• Four goals: taxes on foreign goods to repel competition from the outside, using loans to attract foreign capital, Gold Standard raised to encourage foreign investment, squeezing resources from peasant class through high taxes, collection of surplus crops and low wages for the working class

Success and limitation of Witte's Policies:

• Foreign Investment: heavily invested in foreign economies from 200 million in 1890 to 900 million in ten years
• Industrial Output: Output quadrupled between 1890-1910
• Railways: railways improved from 7k in 1890 to 60k in 1905 in order to improve communications and transport
• Major advances occurred, but Russia was still far behind other European states. Railways was still insufficient. Where the railway improved, other forms such as roads still lacked behind. 
• Foreign capital meant regular interest payments that eequated to an annual 20% of government budget
• Discontentment among peasants due to the heavy grain and monetary taxation especially during times of famine. 
• Poor work and living conditions for industrial workers leading to revolts and a call for more political power for workers.

Summary: Overall, Witte's policies strengthened Russia in many areas. The railways would become useful by 1914 when World War 1 happened. The economy, industry and military experienced huge benefits. All this came at the cost of the working/peasant classes. They suffered because of Witte's policies and this created societal tension that became the grounds for mass uprisings

RNA and DNA Replication

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids:


     DNA is made up of many nucleotides. Each nucleatide consists of sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base (ring structure with nitrogen). Nucleotides can join together by forming covalent bonds between the phosphate of one nucleotide to the sugar of another nucleotide. This polymer of nucleotides is called a nucleic acid. Both RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) are examples of nucleic acids. The RNA and DNA differ by the types of sugar that are present. DNA's sugar is deoxyribose and the bases of DNA are adenine, cytosine, quanine and thymine. RNA has ribose sugar and it has the same bases as DNA with the exception of uracil instead of thymine.

The covalent bonds between nucleotides in DNA form a backbone with alternating sugar and phosphate molecules. DNA consists of two complementary strands that are connected at the nitrogenous bases via hydrogen bonds. Each strand consists of differing nitrogenous bases that form an anti-parallel pair such that one strand will be able to code for the other strand. This is because the four nitrogenous bases are paired so that cytosine (C) and guanine (G) are always paired together and adenine and thymine (T) paired as well. The bases guanine and adenine are both purines that are always opposite pyrimidines. Pyrimidines are the cytosine and thymine bases.  Each base pair are held together by hydrogen bonds. There are three bonds between guanine and cytosine while adenine and thymine are held by two hydrogen bonds.Together these two polymers of nucleotides were coiled to form a double helix structure with the sugar phosphate backbones on the outside. One strand goes from the 5 prime (5') to the 3 prime (3') while the other strand goes from the 3 prime (3') to the 5 prime (5') direction.

Supercoiling:
     In eukaryotes, DNA is associated with the protein histone. DNA winds around groups of histones in order to protect itself. A group of these histones are called nucleosomes. A nucleosome of eight histone proteins are gathered in an octomer shape and a different protein links the DNA from one nucleosome to another. The nucleosomes serve to supercoil DNA so that the chromosomes are shorter and fatter when mitosis or meiosis occurs. Transcription is also made easier with the help of nucleosomes.

DNA replication:
     DNA replication is often know as being semi-conservative. It uses one of the original strands as a template for a new strand. The two replicated DNA molecules, therefore, consist of one 'old' strand and one 'new' strand. DNA replication can being at many origin sites in eukaryotic cells while prokaryotic cells only have one origin of replication.

1. Double helix structure of DNA is unwound by the enzyme helicase. The two strands are separated in preparation for arriving nucleotides (nucleoside triphosphate) which will bind, via hydrogen bonds, with the exposed complementary bases. Each nucleoside triphosphate then goes through hydrolysis (splitting with water) to provide the energy to join the new nucleotide to the polymer (original strands)
2. Strands are formed 5' to 3' direction or along the 3' to 5' direction of the old template strand. The enzyme primase makes short sequences of RNA called primers begin the process. Complementary deoxynucleoside phosphates are paired with the template strand of DNA.
3. Nucleotides are only added to the 3' end of the original DNA strand so nucleotides are added in opposite directions. The leading strand has nucleotides that are added in the direction following the helicase. The lagging strand equips a different method during DNA replication. 
4. DNA polymerase III binds to the 3' end of the leading strand of the DNA. Nucleotides of deoxynucldoside phosphates are formed in the 3' to 5'direction (of the leading strand) of the polymerase III 
5. In the lagging strand, RNA primase follows the helicase, but only leaves small sections of RNA primers along the strand. This marks the points where DNA polymerase will work. 
6. Each DNA polymerase binds to each primer and replicates DNA in the opposite direction of the helicase but also following the 3' to 5' direction on the lagging strand. (therefore it replicates DNA in a 5' to 3' direction) When it reaches a primer, it detaches and jumps to the next primer following the helicase. 
7. The remaining RNA primer fragments are called okazaki fragments and they are all removed by DNA polyermase I that follows the direction of the helicase. DNA ligase binds to each okazaki fragments and creates a continuous strand of DNA

9.3 Reproduction in Angiosperms

The Dicot Seed:
Cotelydon: organ that stores food, becomes first seed leaves
Plumule: embryo shoot
Hypocotyl: stem below attachment point
Radicle: stem tip developing into root
Micropyle: hole that allows water to enter before germination

Germination:
Specific conditions are needed for germination. This may vary for all plants:
oxygen: used in aerobic respiration
water: activation of cells
temperature: certain temperature needed for enzymes to function
Some plants have unique conditions/processes such as: fire, freezing, washing to remove inhibitors, erosion of seed coat, passing through digestive system of an animal

1. Water enters micropyle to activate cell
2. Synthesis of gibberelins (plant growth hormone)
3. Gibberelins cause synthesis of the enzyme amylase
4. Amylase hydrolysis stored starch into maltose
5. Maltose is absorbed by the plumule and the radicle
6. Hydrolysis of the maltose turns into glucose to be used in cell respiration. Other stored proteins or lipids will be hydrolysed (breakdown using water) to form enzymes, triglycerides and phospholipids

Photoperiodism: the response by a plant to changes in a photoperiod or the lengths of day and night (especially the continuous exposures to darkness). Some plants will flower during long days (LDP/long day plants), short days (SDP, short day plants), or neutral plants will flower regardless of day length.

Phytochrome is believed to be a blue-green leaf pigment that will sense the periods of day and night. The plant will become 'active' or 'inactive' in response to certain lights. Phytochrome is especially sensitive to red (Pr) and far red light (Pfr). When Pr (inactive form) absorbs red light it is converted to Pfr (activated form). Pfr turns to Pr when it absorbs far red light. Pfr also spontaneously changes back to Pr in the dark.

In LDP, Pfr will bind to receptors that promote transcription of genes used in flowering

In SDP, Pfr will inhibit transcription. During long nights, Pfr is converted into Pr so that by the daytime there won't be much Pfr to inhibit flowering. Flowering is then able to occur. 

5.3 Populations

Population size
N = Natality
I = Immigration
M = Mortality
E = Emigration

(N + I) - (M + E)
Natality and immigration increase size.
Mortality and emigration decrease size.

Sigmoid (S-Shaped) population growth curve

Phases of population growth curve
Exponential growth phase: population increases exponentially, adequate nutrients available and little accumulation of waste. High natality.
Linear growth: Natality rate decreases, but still exceeds rising mortality rate. Developing shortage of nutrients and accumulating waste products.
Plateau: Natality and immortality equals population. Nutrient supply and level of waste do not support growth in numbers.

Limits to population increase
Predation
Disease
Natural disasters

5.2 The greenhouse effect

Carbon Cycle

Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide

Relationship between rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect

Radiant energy of shorter-wave radiation from sun reaches earth (visible light and infra-red radiation), warms up sea and land.

When warmed, earth radiates infra-red (longer-wave radiation) back to space, but clouds and much is absorbed by gases in atmosphere.

Gases in atmosphere that absorb infra-red are called greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide; water vapor; methane; atmospheric pollutants - nitrous oxides, chlorofluorocarbons.

Nitrous oxides - waste product of combustion of fossil fuels, abundant source - exhaust fumes of internal combustion engines.

Levels of greenhouse gases correlated with global temperature.

Precautionary principle

If the effects of a human-induced changed would be very large, perhaps catastrophic, those responsible for the change must prove that it will not do harm before proceeding. This is the reverse of the normal situation, where those who are concerned about the change would have to prove that it will do harm in order to prevent such changes going ahead.

Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect

We need to evaluate - most likely consequences that my result from failure to slow down the rising level of atmosphere carbon dioxide and then reduce it to earlier values; actions needed to deliver measures that enable us to achieve this.

Consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems

Loss of ice habitats, leading to extensive flooding of surrounding low-lands, at least temporarily
Significant decay by microorganisms of the accumulated detritus, once released from its permafrost state, leading to huge releases into the atmosphere of methane and carbon dioxide, previously locked away in dead organic matter; this contributes to further global warming
An expansion in the range of habitats as significant quantities of soil rich in humus are formed
Appearance and growth of conifers, forming boreal forests (taiga); these areas absorb radiant heat energy from sunlight and contribute to further warming of the region, sine they replace ice, snow and frozen tundra
Appearance of insect-eating species, particularly of birds, able to take advantage of further increasing numbers of insects
A wider flora including annual plants typical of alpine meadows and grssland in summer seasons, where these appear
Appearance of small mammals such as the alpine marmot, able to take advantage of the expanding range of plant biota and habitats (in winter periods such mammals need to be able to retreat into excavated dens for group hibernation)
Predators for the expanded vertebrate populations, mostly birds of prey (raptors) that can fly on when winter returns
Increased presence of pathogens that parasites that expanded range of animal and plant life the changing habitat supports

3.5 Tsar Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas the Second was the last Russian Tsar. He was known for his incompetency in his rule caused in part by his lack of training when his father, Tsar Alexander III, suddenly passed away. Ultimately, he was expected to rule with the belief that he had been 'god ordained.' Yet he was a shy man who knew that he was not prepared to rule a country to large. He was not eager to make decisions or to in engage political issues, but he was eager  to maintain the autocratic style of rule that was left by his father. This led to his inability to adapt when needed to respond to the changing needs surrounding and within Russia. His hard willed stance for autocracy was backed by the Tsarina Alexandra who turned Tsar Nicholas from those who would tried to persuade him to reform.

Issues of Russia:
Poor Economy, primitive industrial techniques, vastness of country - Russia's economy was still far behind that of France and Britain. They were no where near the economic level that the great powers were at. To make matters worst the industry was also lacking and needed a major upgrade in order to maintain any hope of catching up economically. Russia's industry within agriculture, in the 1900s, was still stuck in the middle aged framework. Serfdom was still the main style of rule causing inefficient production as well as dissatisfaction among the workers. The peasants that made up much of Russia's population faced starvation, low wages, debts and a desire for more land.
Tsar Nicholas feared that any modernization would harm his autocratic rule. A rise in social and economic powers might challenge his regime when workers become dissatisfied with their working conditions. Workers might be able to gain a better education or become elevated into the middle class where political groups are bound to listen to any needs and issues. Overall, Nicholas realized the need to modernize while also avoiding social or economic reforms